The Roman Empire. Or Republic. Or...Which Was It?: Crash Course World History #10

In which John Green explores exactly when Rome went from being the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. Here's a hint: it had something to do with Julius Caesar, but maybe less than you think. Find out how Caesar came to rule the empire, what led to him getting stabbed 23 times on the floor of the senate, and what happened in the scramble for power after his assassination. John covers Rome's transition from city-state to dominant force in the Mediterranean in less than 12 minutes. Well, Rome's expansion took hundreds of years, he just explains it in under 12 minutes. The senate, the people, Rome, the caesarian section, the Julian calendar and our old friend Pompey all make appearances, but NOT the Caesar Salad, as Julius had nothing to do with it.

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Closed Caption:

Hi, I’m John Green; this is Crash Course
World History and today we’re going to learn
about the Roman Empire, which of course began
when two totally nonfictional twins, Romulus
and Remus, who’d been raised by wolves,
founded a city on seven hills.
Mr Green, Mr Green, what… what does SPQR
stand for?
It means shut pie hole quickly, rapscallion.
No, it means Senātus Populusque Rōmānus,
one of the mottos of the Roman Republic.
So today we’re going to do some old school
Great Man History and focus on Julius Caesar
while trying to answer a question: When, if
ever, is it OK to stab someone 23 times?
[Theme Music]
Shakespeare answers that question by saying
that Roman senators killed Caesar because
he was going to destroy the Roman republic, but
even if that’s true, we still have to answer whether:
a. The Roman Republic was worth preserving,
and
b. whether Caesar actually destroyed it.
One of the things that made the Roman republic
endure, both in reality and in imagination
was its balance. According to the Greek historian
Polybius, "THE THREE kinds of government,
monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, were
all found united in Rome. And… it was no easy
thing to determine with assurance, whether the entire
state was an aristocracy, a democracy, or a monarchy.”
At the heart of this blended system was the
Senate, a body of legislators chosen from
a group of elite families. (Rome was divided
into two broad classes: the Patricians – the
small group of aristocratic families and the
Plebeians, basically everybody else. The Senators
were drawn from the Patricians.) The Senate
was a sort of a mixture of legislature and
giant advisory council. Their main job was
to set the policy for the Consuls.
Each year the Senate would choose from among
its ranks 2 co-Consuls to serve as sort of
the chief executives of Rome. There needed
to be two so they could check each other’s
ambition, and also so that one could, you
know, take care of Rome domestically, while
the other was off fighting wars, and conquering
new territory.
There were two additional checks on power:
First, the one-year term. I mean, how much
trouble could you really do in a year, right?
Unless you’re the CEO of Netflix, I mean
he destroyed that company in like two weeks.
And secondly, once a senator had served as
consul, he was forbidden to serve as consul
again for at least 10 years. Although that
went a little bit like you say you’re only
going to eat one Chipotle burrito per week,
and then there are a few exceptions, and then
all of a sudden you’re there every day, and YES,
I know guacamole is more, JUST GIVE IT TO ME!
But right, we were talking about the Romans.
The Romans also had a position of dictator,
a person who would who’d take over in the
event the Republic was in imminent danger.
The paradigm for this selfless Roman ruler
was Cincinnatus, a general who came out of
comfortable retirement at his plantation,
took command of an army, defeated whatever
enemy he was battling, and then laid down
his command and returned to his farm, safe
in the knowledge that one day the second largest
city in Ohio would be named for him.
If that model of leadership sounds familiar
to Americans by the way, it’s because George
Washington was heavily influenced by Cincinnatus
when he invented the idea of a two term president.
So along comes Caesar. Gaius Ju- Gay-us? No
it’s Gaius, I know from Battlestar Galactica.
Gaius Julius Caesar was born around 100 BCE
to one of Rome’s leading families. His birth
was somewhat miraculous, requiring a surgical
procedure that we know as Caesarian section.
Coming as he did from the senatorial class,
it was natural that Caesar would serve in
both the army and the Senate, which he did.
He rose through the ranks, and after some
top-notch generalling, and a gig as the governor
of Spain, he decided to run for consul.
In order to win, Caesar needed financial help,
which he got from Crassus, one of Rome’s
richest men. Crassus ran a private fire company
whose business model was essentially, “Hey,
I notice your house is on fire. Give me some
money and I’ll help you out with that.”
Caesar succeeded in becoming consul in 59
BCE and thereafter sought to dominate Roman
politics by allying himself with Crassus and
also with Rome’s other most powerful man,
the general Pompey. You’ll no doubt remember
Pompey from his fascination with Alexander
the Great. Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar were
the so-called first triumvirate, and the alliance
worked out super well, for Caesar. Not so
well for the other two. Let’s go to the Thought Bubble.
After a year as consul that included getting
the senate to pass laws largely because of
intimidation by Pompey’s troops, Caesar
landed the governorship of Gaul, at least
the southern part of Gaul that Rome controlled.
He quickly conquered the rest of Gaul and
his four loyal armies — or legions, as the
Romans called them — became his source of
power. Caesar continued his conquests, invading Britain
and waging another successful war against the Gauls.
While he was away, Crassus died in battle
with the Parthians and Pompey, who had become
Caesar’s rival and enemy, was elected Consul.
Pompey and the Senate decided to try to strip
Caesar of his command and recall him to Rome.
If he returned to Rome without an army, Caesar
would have been prosecuted for corrupt consuling
and also probably exceeding his authority
as governor, so instead he returned with the
13th Legion.
He crossed the Rubicon River, famously saying,
“The die is cast” or possibly, “Let
the die be cast.” Sorry, Thought Bubble,
sources disagree. Basically, Caesar was invading
his own hometown. Pompey was in charge of
Rome’s army but like a boss fled the city,
and by 48 BCE Caesar was in total command
of all of Rome’s holdings, having been named
both dictator and consul.
Caesar set out to Egypt to track down Pompey
only to learn that he’d already been assassinated
by agents of the Pharaoh Ptolemy. Egypt had
its own civil war at the time, between the
Pharaoh and his sister/wife Cleopatra. Ptolemy
was trying to curry favor with Caesar by killing
his enemy, but Caesar was mad in that the-only-person-who-gets-to-tease-my-little-brother-is-me
kind of way, except with murder instead of
teasing. So Caesar sided with — and skoodilypooped
with — Cleopatra. Thank you, Thought Bubble.
Cleopatra went on to become the last Pharaoh
of Ancient Egypt and bet on Marc “I am the
Wrong Horse” Antony instead of Emperor “There
is a Baby Attached to My Leg” Augustus.
But before all that, Caesar made his way back
from Egypt to Rome, stopping off to defeat
a few kings in the east, and was declared
dictator again. That position that was later
extended for ten years, and then for life.
He was elected consul in 46 BCE and then again
in 45 BCE, this last time without a co-consul.
By 45 BCE Caesar was the undisputed master
of Rome and he pursued reforms that strengthened
his own power. He provided land pensions for
his soldiers, restructured the debts of a
huge percentage of Rome’s debtors, and also
changed the calendar to make it look more
like the one we use today.
But by 44 BCE, many Senators had decided that
Caesar controlled too much of the power in
Rome, and so they stabbed him 23 times on
the floor of the Roman senate. Caesar was
duly surprised about this and everything,
but he never said, “Et Tu, Brute” when
he realized Brutus was one of the co-conspirators.
That was an invention of Shakespeare.
The conspirators thought that the death of
Caesar would bring about the restoration of
the Republic, and they were wrong. For one
thing, Caesar’s reforms were really popular
with the Rome’s people, who were quick to
hail his adopted son Octavian, as well as
his second-in-command Mark “I am the Wrong
Horse” Antony and a dude named Lepidus,
as a second triumvirate.
This triumvirate was an awesome failure, degenerating
into a second civil war. Octavian and Antony
fought it out. Antony, being the wrong horse,
lost. Octavian won, changed his name to Caesar
Augustus, became sole ruler of Rome, attached
a baby to his leg, adopted the title Emperor,
and started printing coins identifying himself
as Divini Filius: The Son of God. More on that next week.
Although Augustus tried to pretend that the
forms of the Roman republic were still intact,
the truth was that he made the laws and the
Senate had become nothing more than a rubber
stamp. Which reminds me, it’s time for the
open letter.
Movie magic! An open letter to the Roman Senate.
Oh, but first, let’s see what’s in the
secret compartment. Ah, it’s a harmonica!
Stan, do you want me to play some old, Roman
folk songs? Very well. Stan, I just want to thank
you for doing such a good job of overdubbing there.
Dear Roman Senate, Whether you were rubber
stamping the laws of Emperor Augustus, or
stabbing Caesar on the floor of your sacred
hall, you were always doing something! I don’t
want to sound nostalgic for a time when people
lived to be 30, a tiny minority of adults
could vote, and the best fashion choice was
bed-sheets, but oh my god, at least you did something!
Your senate was chosen from among the Patrician
class. Our senate here in the United States
is chosen from among the obstructionist class.
But don’t get me wrong, Roman senate, you
were terrible. Best wishes, John Green.
So did Caesar destroy the Republic? Well,
he started a series of civil wars, he seized
power for himself, he subverted the ideas
of the republic, he changed the constitution,
but he’s only really to blame if he was
the first one to do that. And he wasn’t.
Take the general Marius, for instance, who
rose to power on the strength of his generalship
and on his willingness to open up the army
to the poor, who were loyal to him personally,
and not to Rome, and whom he promised land
in exchange for their good service in the
army. This of course required the Romans to
keep conquering new land so they could keep
giving it to new legionnaires. Marius also
was consul 5 times in a row, 60 years before Caesar.
Or look at the general Sulla who, like Marius,
ensured that his armies would be more loyal
to him personally than to Rome, but who marched
against Rome itself, and then became its dictator,
executing thousands of people in 81 BCE, 30
years before Caesar entered the scene.
There is another way of looking at this question
altogether if we dispense with great man history.
Maybe Rome became an empire before it had
an emperor. Like, remember the Persian Empire?
You’ll recall that empire had some characteristics
that made it, imperial. Like a unified system
of government, continual military expansion,
and a diversity of subject peoples.
The Roman empire had all three of those characteristics
long before it became The Roman Empire. Like
Rome started out as a city, and then it became
a city state, then a kingdom, and then a Republic,
but that entire time, it was basically comprised
of the area around Rome.
By the 4th century BCE, Rome started to incorporate
its neighbors like the Latins and the Etruscans,
and pretty soon they had all of Italy under
their control, but that’s not really diversity
of subject peoples. I mean, nothing personal,
Italians, but you have a lot of things in
common, like the constant gesticulations.
If you want to talk about real expansion and
diversity, you’ve got to talk about the
Punic Wars. These were the wars that I remember,
primarily because they involved Hannibal crossing the
Alps with freaking war-elephants, which was probably
the last time that the elephants could have risen
up, and formed their awesome secret elephant
society with elephant planes and elephant cars.
In the First Punic War, Rome wanted Sicily,
which was controlled by the Carthaginians.
Rome won, which made Carthage cranky, so they
started the second Punic war. In 219 BCE,
Hannibal attacked a Roman town and then led
an army across Spain, and then crossed the
freaking Alps with elephants.
Hannibal and his elephant army almost won,
but alas, they didn’t, and as a result the
Romans got Spain. People in Spain are definitely
NOT Romans (despite Russell Crowe’s character
in Gladiator), which means that by 201 BCE
Rome was definitely an empire.
The third Punic War was a formality – Rome
found some excuse to attack Carthage and then
destroyed it so completely that these days
you can’t even find it on a map. Eventually
this whole area, and a lot more, would be
incorporated into a system of provinces and
millions of people would be ruled by the Roman
Empire.
And it’s ridiculous to say that Rome was
a Republic until Augustus became Rome’s
first official emperor, because by the time
he did that, Rome had been an empire for almost
200 years. There's a reason I'm arguing that
the death of the Republic came long before
Caesar and probably around the time that Rome
became an Empire.
If anything destroyed the idea of Republican
Rome, it was the concentration of power into
the hands of one man. And this man was always
a general. I mean, you can’t march on Rome
without an army, after all. Why were there
such powerful generals? Because Rome had decided
to become an Empire, and empires need to expand
militarily. Particularly, the Roman empire
needed to expand militarily because it always
needed new land to give its retired legionnaires.
That expansion created the all-powerful general
and the incorporation of diverse peoples made
it easier for them to be loyal to him, rather
than to some abstract idea of the Republic.
Julius Caesar didn’t create emperors: Empire
created them.
Next week we’ll be discussing Christianity,
so that shouldn’t be controversial. Until
then, thanks for watching.
Crash Course is produced and directed by Stan
Muller, our script supervisor is Danica Johnson.
The show is written by my high school history
teacher Raoul Meyer and myself and our graphics
team is Thought Bubble.
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